2015年1月2日星期五

Biochip 生物芯片及应用

           生物芯片(biochip)是指采用光导原位合成或微量点样等方法,将大量生物大分子比如核酸片段、多肽分子甚至组织切片、细胞等等生物样品有序地固化于支持物(如玻片、硅片、聚丙烯酰胺凝胶、尼龙膜等载体)的表面,组成密集二维分子排列,然后与已标记的待测生物样品中靶分子杂交,通过特定的仪器比如激光共聚焦扫描或电荷偶联摄影像机(CCD)对杂交信号的强度进行快速、并行、高效地检测分析,从而判断样品中靶分子的数量。由于常用玻片/硅片作为固相支持物,且在制备过程模拟计算机芯片的制备技术,所以称之为生物芯片技术。

          根据芯片上的固定的探针不同,生物芯片包括基因芯片、蛋白质芯片、细胞芯片、组织芯片,另外根据原理还有元件型微阵列芯片、通道型微阵列芯片、生物传感芯片等新型生物芯片。如果芯片上固定的是肽或蛋白,则称为肽芯片或蛋白芯片;如果芯片上固定的分子是寡核苷酸探针或DNA,就是DNA芯片。由于基因芯片(Genechip)这一专有名词已经被业界的领头羊Affymetrix公司注册专利,因而其他厂家的同类产品通常称为DNA微阵列(DNA Microarray)。这类产品是目前最重要的一种,有寡核苷酸芯片、cDNA芯片和Genomic芯片之分,包括二种模式:一是将靶DNA固定于支持物上,适合于大量不同靶DNA的分析,二是将大量探针分子固定于支持物上,适合于对同一靶DNA进行不同探针序列的分析。 

          生物芯片技术是90年代中期以来影响最深远的重大科技进展之一,是融微电子学、生物学、物理学、化学、计算机科学为一体的高度交叉的新技术,具有重大的基础研究价值,又具有明显的产业化前景。由于用该技术可以将极其大量的探针同时固定于支持物上,所以一次可以对大量的生物分子进行检测分析,从而解决了传统核酸印迹杂交(Southern Blotting 和Northern Blotting等)技术复杂、自动化程度低、检测目的分子数量少、低通量(low through-put)等不足。而且,通过设计不同的探针阵列、使用特定的分析方法可使该技术具有多种不同的应用价值,如基因表达谱测定、突变检测、多态性分析、基因组文库作图及杂交测序(Sequencing by hybridization, SBH)等,为"后基因组计划"时期基因功能的研究及现代医学科学及医学诊断学的发展提供了强有力的工具,将会使新基因的发现、基因诊断、药物筛选、给药个性化等方面取得重大突破,为整个人类社会带来深刻广泛的变革。该技术被评为1998年度世界十大科技进展之一。 

应用领域 

1 基因表达水平的检测 

     用基因芯片进行的表达水平检测可自动、快速地检测出成千上万个基因的表达情况。Schena等采用拟南芥基因组内共45个基因的cDNA微阵列(其中14个为完全序列,31个为EST),检测该植物的根、叶组织内这些基因的表达水平,用不同颜色的荧光素标记逆转录产物后分别与该微阵列杂交,经激光共聚焦显微扫描,发现该植物根和叶组织中存在26个基因的表达差异,而参与叶绿素合成的CAB1基因在叶组织较根组织表达高500倍。Schena等用人外周血淋巴细胞的cDNA文库构建一个代表1046个基因的cDNA微阵列,来检测体外培养的T细胞对热休克反应后不同基因表达的差异,发现有5个基因在处理后存在非常明显的高表达,11个基因中度表达增加和6个基因表达明显抑制。该结果还用荧光素交换标记对照和处理组及RNA印迹方法证实。在HGP完成之后,用于检测在不同生理、病理条件下的人类所有基因表达变化的基因组芯片为期不远了。 
  
2 基因诊断 

   从正常人的基因组中分离出DNA与DNA芯片杂交就可以得出标准图谱。从病人的基因组中分离出DNA与DNA芯片杂交就可以得出病变图谱。通过比较、分析这两种图谱,就可以得出病变的DNA信息。这种基因芯片诊断技术以其快速、高效、敏感、经济、平行化、自动化等特点,将成为一项现代化诊断新技术。例如Affymetrix公司,把P53基因全长序列和已知突变的探针集成在芯片上,制成P53基因芯片,将在癌症早期诊断中发挥作用。又如,Heller等构建了96个基因的cDNA微阵,用于检测分析风湿性关节炎(RA)相关的基因,以探讨DNA芯片在感染性疾病诊断方面的应用。现在,肝炎病毒检测诊断芯片、结核杆菌耐药性检测芯片、多种恶性肿瘤相关病毒基因芯片等一系列诊断芯片逐步开始进入市场。基因诊断是基因芯片中最具有商业化价值的应用。 

3 药物筛选         

   如何分离和鉴定药的有效成份是目前中药产业和传统的西药开发遇到的重大障碍,基因芯片技术是解决这一障碍的有效手段,它能够大规模地筛选、通用性强,能够从基因水平解释药物的作用机理,即可以利用基因芯片分析用药前后机体的不同组织、器官基因表达的差异。如果再c DNA表达文库得到的肽库制作肽芯片,则可以从众多的药物成分中筛选到起作用的部分物质。还有,利用RNA、单链DNA有很大的柔性,能形成复杂的空间结构,更有利与靶分子相结合,可将核酸库中的RNA或单链DNA固定在芯片上,然后与靶蛋白孵育,形成蛋白质-RNA或蛋白质-DNA复合物,可以筛选特异的药物蛋白或核酸,因此芯片技术和RNA库的结合在药物筛选中将得到广泛应用。在寻找HIV药物中,Jellis等用组合化学合成及DNA芯片技术筛选了654536种硫代磷酸八聚核苷酸,并从中确定了具有XXG4XX样结构的抑制物,实验表明,这种筛选物对HIV感染细胞有明显阻断作用。生物芯片技术使得药物筛选,靶基因鉴别和新药测试的速度大大提高,成本大大降低。基因芯片药物筛选技术工作目前刚刚起步,美国很多制药公司已开始前期工作,即正在建立表达谱数据库,从而为药物筛选提供各种靶基因及分析手段。这一技术具有很大的潜在应用价值。 

4 个体化医疗      

   临床上,同样药物的剂量对病人甲有效可能对病人乙不起作用,而对病人丙则可能有副作用。在药物疗效与副作用方面,病人的反应差异很大。这主要是由于病人遗传学上存在差异(单核苷酸多态性,SNP),导致对药物产生不同的反应。例如细胞色素P450酶与大约25%广泛使用的药物的代谢有关,如果病人该酶的基因发生突变就会对降压药异喹胍产生明显的副作用,大约5%~10%的高加索人缺乏该酶基因的活性。现已弄清楚这类基因存在广泛变异,这些变异除对药物产生不同反应外,还与易犯各种疾病如肿瘤、自身免疫病和帕金森病有关。如果利用基因芯片技术对患者先进行诊断,再开处方,就可对病人实施个体优化治疗。另一方面,在治疗中,很多同种疾病的具体病因是因人而异的,用药也应因人而异。例如乙肝有较多亚型,HBV基因的多个位点如S、P及C基因区易发生变异。若用乙肝病毒基因多态性检测芯片每隔一段时间就检测一次,这对指导用药防止乙肝病毒耐药性很有意义。又如,现用于治疗AIDS的药物主要是病毒逆转录酶RT和蛋白酶PRO的抑制剂,但在用药3-12月后常出现耐药,其原因是rt、pro基因产生一个或多个点突变。Rt基因四个常见突变位点是Asp67→Asn、Lys70→Arg、Thr215→Phe、Tyr和Lys219→Glu,四个位点均突变较单一位点突变后对药物的耐受能力成百倍增加。如将这些基因突变部位的全部序列构建为DNA芯片,则可快速地检测病人是这一个或那一个或多个基因发生突变,从而可对症下药,所以对指导治疗和预后有很大的意义。 

5 测序        
    
    基因芯片利用固定探针与样品进行分子杂交产生的杂交图谱而排列出待测样品的序列,这种测定方法快速而具有十分诱人的前景。Mark chee等用含135000个寡核苷酸探针的阵列测定了全长为16.6kb的人线粒体基因组序列,准确率达99%。Hacia等用含有48000个寡核苷酸的高密度微阵列分析了黑猩猩和人BRCA1基因序列差异,结果发现在外显子11约3.4kb长度范围内的核酸序列同源性在98.2%到83.5%之间,提示了二者在进化上的高度相似性。据未经证实的报道,去年有一种不成熟的生物芯片在15分钟内完成了1.6万个碱基对的测定,96个这样的生物芯片的平行工作,就相当于每天1.47亿个碱基对的分析能力! 

6 生物信息学研究    
 
   人类基因组计划(HGP)是人类为了认识自己而进行的一项伟大而影响深远的研究计划。目前的问题是面对大量的基因或基因片断序列如何研究其功能,只有知道其功能才能真正体现HGP计划的价值--破译人类基因这部天书。后基因组计划、蛋白组计划、疾病基因组计划等概念就是为实现这一目标而提出的。基因的功能并不独立的,一个基因表达
的上调或者下调往往会影响上游和下游几个基因表达状态的改变,从而进一步引起和这几个基因相关的更多基因的表达模式的改变。基因之间的这种复杂的相互作用组成了一张交错复杂的立体的关系网。像过去那样孤立的理解某个基因的功能已经远远不够了,需要我们站在更高的层次全面的理解这种相互关系,全面了解不同个体基因变异、不同组织、不同时间、不同生命状态等的基因表达差异信息,并找出其中规律。生物信息学将在其中扮演至关重要的角色。基因芯片技术就是为实现这一环节而建立的,使对个体生物信息进行高速、并行采集和分析成为可能,必将成为未来生物信息学研究中的一个重要信息采集和处理平台,成为基因组信息学研究的主要技术支撑。比如研究基因生物学功能的最好方式是监测基因在不同组织、不同发育阶段、不同健康状况下在机体中活性的变化。这是一项非常麻烦的工作,但基因芯片技术可以允许研究人员同时测定成千上万个基因的作用方式,几周内获得的信息用其它方法需要几年才能得到。 

    由于人类基因只是地球上几十万种生物基因资源中的一份子,在今后的几十年内,人类将测出所有物种的"基因图谱"。因此,类似如人类基因组计划的基因研究和生物信息产业,还仅仅是一个起步,其将来的发展前景是无法估量的。生物芯片作为生物信息学的主要技术支撑和操作平台,其广阔的发展空间就不言而喻。 


    在实际应用方面,生物芯片技术可广泛应用于疾病诊断和治疗、药物基因组图谱、药物筛选、中药物种鉴定、农作物的优育优选、司法鉴定、食品卫生监督、环境检测、国防等许多领域。它将为人类认识生命的起源、遗传、发育与进化、为人类疾病的诊断、治疗和防治开辟全新的途径,为生物大分子的全新设计和药物开发中先导化合物的快速筛选和药物基因组学研究提供技术支撑平台,这从我国99年3月国家科学技术部刚起草的《医药生物技术“十五”及2015年规划》中便可见一斑:规划所列十五个关键技术项目中,就有八个项目(基因组学技术、重大疾病相关基因的分离和功能研究、基因药物工程、基因治疗技术、生物信息学技术、组合生物合成技术、新型诊断技术、蛋白质组学和生物芯片技术)要使用生物芯片。生物芯片技术被单列作为一个专门项目进行规划。总之,生物芯片技术在医学、生命科学、药业、农业、环境科学等凡与生命活动有关的领域中均具有重大的应用前景。 

2014年12月29日星期一

Bouveault aldehyde synthesis(or Bouveault Reaction) 人名反应格式反应机理碳负离子醛合成







The reaction for synthesis of aldehydes by the treatment of NN-disubstituted formamides (DMF) with either Grignard reagent or organic lithium reagent in an ether solvent (OR THF) is generally known as Bouveault aldehyde synthesis. 



The first step of the Bouveault aldehyde synthesis is the formation of the Grignard reagent or organic lithium reagent . Upon addition of a N,N-disubstituted formamide (such as DMF) a hemiaminal is formed, which can easily be hydrolyzed into the desired aldehyde .

首先卤代烃与镁反应生成相应的格氏试剂,然后加入 N,N-二取代甲酰胺(如二甲基甲酰胺),格氏试剂与之作用产生半胺醛(hemiaminal)中间体,该中间体经水解便很容易得到醛。

Example:



Cited:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040403900876157#
http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/ma500486u/suppl_file/ma500486u_si_001.pdf








2014年12月6日星期六

Carbodiimide Crosslinker Chemistry (EDCI, DCC)碳二亚胺化合物

Carboxyl-reactive Crosslinker Reactive Groups

Very few types of chemical groups are known to provide specific and practical conjugation to carboxylic acids (–COOH), such as occur in proteins and many other biomolecules. Certain diazomethane and diazoacetyl reagents have been used to derivatize small compounds for analysis by HPLC or for fluorescent labeling. Carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) can be used in non-aqueous conditions to activate carboxylic acids for direct conjugation to primary amines (–NH2) via amide bonds.酰胺


Carbodiimide compounds provide the most popular and versatile method for labeling or crosslinking to carboxylic acids. The most readily available and commonly used carbodiimides are the water-soluble EDC for aqueous crosslinking and the water-insoluble DCC for non-aqueous organic synthesis methods.
EDC carbodiimide crosslinker chemical structureDCC carbodiimide crosslinker chemical structure
Chemical structures of carbodiimides EDC and DCC. EDCI (also called EDAC) is 1-ethyl-3-(-3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride, MW 191.70(含HCl). DCC is N',N'-dicyclohexyl carbodiimide, MW 206.32.



Carbodiimides, as with CDI-mediated conjugation, work by activating carboxyl groups for direct reaction with primary amines via amide bond formation. Because no portion of their chemical structure becomes part of the final bond between conjugated molecules, carbodiimides are considered zero-length carboxyl-to-amine cross linkers.

EDC Reaction Chemistry

EDC reacts with carboxylic acid groups to form an active O-acylisourea intermediate that is easily displaced by nucleophilic attack from primary amino groups in the reaction mixture. The primary amine forms an amide bond with the original carboxyl group, and an EDC by-product is released as a soluble urea derivative. The O-acylisourea intermediate is unstable in aqueous solutions; failure to react with an amine results in hydrolysis of the intermediate, regeneration of the carboxyls, and the release of an N-unsubstituted urea.


Carboxyl-to-amine crosslinker reaction scheme for the carbodiimide EDC
Carboxyl-to-amine crosslinking with the popular carbodiimide, EDC. Molecules (1) and (2) can be peptides, proteins or any chemicals that have respective carboxylate and primary amine groups. When they are peptides or proteins, these molecules are tens-to-thousands of times larger than the crosslinker and conjugation arms diagrammed in the reaction.

EDC crosslinking is most efficient in acidic (pH 4.5) conditions and must be performed in buffers devoid of extraneous carboxyls and amines. MES buffer (4-morpholinoethanesulfonic acid) is a suitable carbodiimide reaction buffer. Phosphate buffers and neutral pH (up to 7.2) conditions are compatible with the reaction chemistry, albeit with lower efficiency; increasing the amount of EDC in a reaction solution can compensate for the reduced efficiency.
N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) or its water-soluble analog (Sulfo-NHS) is often included in EDC coupling protocols to improve efficiency or create dry-stable (amine-reactive) intermediates. EDC couples NHS to carboxyls, forming an NHS ester that is considerably more stable than the O-acylisourea intermediate while allowing for efficient conjugation to primary amines at physiologic pH.

Carboxyl-to-amine crosslinker reaction scheme for EDC (carbodiimide) and Sulfo-NHS.
Sulfo-NHS plus EDC (carbodiimide) crosslinking reaction scheme. Carboxyl-to-amine crosslinking using the carbodiimide EDC and sulfo-NHS. Addition of NHS or Sulfo-NHS to EDC reactions (bottom-most pathway) increases efficiency and enables molecule (1) to be activated for storage and later use.
EDC is also capable of activating phosphate groups in the presence of imidazole for conjugation to primary amines. The method is sometimes used to modify, label, crosslink or immobilize oligonucleotides through their 5' phosphate groups.

Applications for EDC Crosslinking

The ability to crosslink primary amines to carboxylic acid groups using EDC is a powerful and versatile tool for crosslinking peptides and proteins, preparing biomolecular probes, and immobilizing macromolecules for use in numerous protein and cell biology detection and analysis methods.
Of course, peptides and proteins contain both primary amines and carboxylic acids (N- and C-termini, respectively, as well as in the side-chain of certain amino acids). Thus, EDC enables peptides and proteins to be easily conjugated to one another or to any compounds or solid surfaces that bear either carboxyl or amino groups.

1. Peptide conjugation to carrier proteins

Because peptides and proteins contain both carboxylates and amines, EDC-mediated crosslinking usually causes random polymerization of polypeptides. This outcome is desirable when preparing immunogens for use in antibody production because it allows peptide antigens to be polymerized and conjugated at high densities onto immunogenic carrier proteins, such as KLH or BSA.

2. Label carboxyl groups with amine compounds

EDC provides the only method for labeling or crosslinking to carboxyl groups of peptides or proteins (i.e., the C-terminus and side chains of glutamic acid and aspartic acid). To accomplish this without also reacting to a significant number of primary amines on the peptide or protein, one must supply a large molar excess of the desired amine-containing molecule. For example, to biotinylate only the C-terminus of a peptide, one would combine the peptide with something like a 100-fold molar excess of an amine-containing biotin compound before adding the appropriate amount of EDC. Most of the amines encountered by EDC-activated carboxylic acid groups of the peptide would be those of the biotin compound, so peptide-to-biotin conjugation would predominate over peptide-to-peptide conjugation.

3. Immobilize peptides for affinity purification

Proteins are typically immobilized or crosslinked via primary amines or sulfhydryl groups rather than through carboxylates. By contrast, peptides (and other small carboxyl-containing molecules) are often immobilized using EDC to polymerize and conjugate them to an amine-derivatized surface material or solid support such as agarose resin. For example, Thermo Scientific CarboxyLink Coupling Resin is 4% beaded agarose that has been modified with diaminodipropylamine (DADPA); it provides the necessary amines for conjugation of peptide carboxylates at the end of a long spacer arm. Peptides are frequently immobilized to agarose beads by this method for antigen-specific affinity purification of antibodies following immunization of animals with peptide-KLH conjugates.

4. Attach peptides to surface materials

Besides agarose beads, many other solid materials are used as platforms to immobilizing molecules for assay methods. Primary amines and carboxylic acids are the most common foundational surface-derivatives for solid particles such as magnetic beads or glass slides. Aminosilane compounds such as 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane (APTS or APS) are popular reagents for coating glass (borosilicate) surfaces with primary amines. EDC is then one important means for covalently attaching peptides or other compounds to the surface material.

DCC Reaction Chemistry and Applications

DCC (dicyclohexyl carbodiimide) crosslinks carboxylic acids to primary amines in the same manner as EDC (see reaction schemes above). However, because DCC is not aqueous-soluble, it is primarily used in manufacturing and organic synthesis applications rather than in the typical protein research biology lab. For example, most commercially available, ready-to-use NHS-ester crosslinkers and labeling reagents are manufactured using DCC. Because water is excluded, the resulting NHS ester can be prepared and stabilized as a dried powder without appreciable hydrolysis. DCC is also commonly used in commercial peptide synthesis operations.